My name is Christopher D. Noll and I have recently completed the coursework requirements for the Masters in Anthropology at Washington State University (WSU). The program at WSU is based in an established and respected department known for archaeological research. I am currently studying under Dr. William Andrefsky, Jr., with a focus on lithic technology and the prehistory of the Plateau and Great Basin regions. My program of study has emphasized the natural and cultural prehistory of the interior northwestern United States. Through my coursework I have completed an environmental study of The Birch Creek Site in the Owyhee Canyon of southeast Oregon during the late Holocene. This study is based largely on palynological data and was presented at the 2007 Northwest Anthropological Conference in Pullman, WA (Noll et al. 2007). The pollen evidence suggests that late Holocene occupants of The Birch Creek Site (35ML181) experienced a climate that was drier than that of today. I presented a lithic debitage study at the 2007 Society for American Archaeology meetings in Austin, TX which explored some of the diagnostic attributes of the debitage produced during the production of unifacial and bifacial tools (Noll and Andrefsky 2007). Through this study Dr. Andrefsky and I were able to demonstrate that the production of unifacial tools such as end scrapers could be distinguished from the production of bifacial tools such as dart points from their debitage alone. Obsidian debitage from The Birch Creek Site was used to test the experimentally derived flake attribute model. These are just two examples of the variety of research related to my thesis and program of study at WSU.

I am the most recent graduate student to work at the Birch Creek Site (35ML181). My thesis is specifically dealing with the late Holocene occupations of that site. During the summer of 2006 an archaeological field school was conducted at the Birch Creek Site which focused on a small portion of undisturbed late Holocene deposits. These deposits contain several thousand faunal and stone artifacts, intact features, and a complex stratigraphic profile. The Owyhee Canyon contains a large number of recorded sites (Pullen 1976) but the Birch Creek Site remains one of the few to have been systematically investigated (Andrefsky et al. 2003). The 2006 excavations represent a major study of the late period of prehistoric human occupation in the Owyhee Canyon. The goal of my thesis will be to look at how people adapted to this landscape during the late Holocene. Among the questions asked will be how were people moving across the landscape and where were they collecting raw material for tools. The majority of the tool-stone represented on the site in this component is local, or apparently local, chert, however, approximately five hundred obsidian tools and debitage were recovered during the 2006 excavations. While not all of these obsidian artifacts meet the size requirements for sourcing, many are suitable.

The analysis that will be most useful for my thesis project is XRF source identification. The obsidian artifacts recovered are distributed throughout several cultural strata. It will be necessary to identify the source areas for obsidian in each strata to detect any potential change in the movement of people around Birch Creek, either during the late Holocene or relative to earlier occupations. The 2006 assemblage contains at approximately sixty artifacts that are of a suitable size for XRF analysis. The priority for analysis will be to identify source locations for each occupational strata. Ideally all the obsidian from this component that can be sourced will be identified.

References Cited

Andrefsky, William, Jr., Lisa Centola, Jason Cowan, and Erin Wallace. 2003. An Introduction to the Birch Creek Site (35ML181): Six Seasons of WSU Archaeological Field Study 1998-2003. Contributions in Cultural Resource Management No. 69, Center for Northwest Anthropology and Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman.

Noll, Christopher D, and William Andrefsky, Jr. 2007. Micro-debitage and Stone Tool Production. Paper presented at the 72nd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Austin, Texas.

Noll, Christopher D., William Andrefsky, Jr., and John G. Jones. 2007. Environmental Context of the Northern Great Basin Late Archaic Period: The View from Birch Creek (35ML181). Poster presented at the 60th Annual Northwest Anthropological Conference, Pullman, Washington.

Pullen, Reg. 1976. Archaeological Survey of the Owyhee River Canyon. Report on File, Bureau of Land Management, Vale District, Vale, Oregon.

The Mount Bennett Hills (MBH) form a west to east trending range of rhyolitic and welded tuff that bisects south-central Idaho, separating Camas Prairie from the middle stretch of the Snake River - two areas known ethnographically as being especially important in the seasonal round of the Snake River Shoshone (Steward 1938:165-169). On the eastern side of the MBH in Camas and Lincoln counties, the landscape is strewn with basaltic lava fields of late Pleistocene age. These lava flows contain sources of water in an otherwise semi-arid desert steppe environment in the spring to early summer and again in the fall. I suspect that these lava flows would have effectively served as "islands" in a sea of sagebrush and would have acted as stepping-stones for small nuclear family groups traveling through the eastern MBH to better-watered environments during their annual seasonal round. This study will focus on land and resource use strategies of prehistoric peoples within the eastern MBH, focusing in particular on the utilization of these lava flows. The primary objectives of my thesis are threefold: (1) to provide a descriptive account of the archaeological sites located immediately adjacent to or within the lava flows of the eastern MBH and to define and describe the cultural features associated with them; (2) to establish chronological parameters for these sites; and (3) to posit some ideas about how these sites fit into the seasonal round of prehistoric peoples.

In addressing the first objective, archaeological reconnaissance survey will be conducted in the eastern MBH. My study area is over 20,600 acres in size and contains over 500 of these mostly unvegetated outcrops of black basaltic lava rock. All of these outcrops and their margins (covering an area of about 1,600 acres or 8% of the study area) will be surveyed in an effort to locate archaeological materials. Preliminary investigations have identified extensive artifact scatters containing flaked stone tools, pottery, and groundstone located off the margins of these lava flows. From some of these artifact scatters, trails take off into the adjacent lava flow. These trails are often marked by rock cairns and lead to water catchment and retention basins, hunting blinds, and possible cache or storage pits. Residential structures are also found either off the flow margins or within the flows themselves. Sites containing residential structures also contain petroglyph panels within the flows. In order to identify these types of cultural features, the surface of these lava flows will also be surveyed. Sites will be categorized by their function, which will be derived from their associated artifact assemblages and cultural features. Site types associated with the lava flows that have been identified so far include residential base camps (which indicate hunting in addition to plant processing activities), hunting camps, and hunting stands.

In addressing the second objective, sites will be dated by the presence or absence and relative frequencies of temporally-diagnostic projectile points observed in surface contexts. In the case of sites and components dated to protohistoric and historic times, chronological data will be obtained from bottle glass and trade beads. Based on preliminary typological cross-dating studies, prehistoric peoples appear to have utilized the lava flows in the eastern MBH for at least the last 10,000 to 11,000 years with intensified use beginning about 1700 years ago and continuing into protohistoric and historic times.

The third objective of this study will attempt to place the eastern MBH into regional context by addressing such issues as mobility practices, patterns of interaction and exchange, and the delineation of group subsistence territories. These issues can be approached and evaluated archaeologically by chemical analyses of volcanic glass (obsidian and ignimbrite) that occurs at these sites in order to determine their origin of procurement. Holmer (1997) maintains that different classes of artifacts were transported differentially across the landscape. Projectile points, for example, should be located at greater distances from their sources than other artifact classes because they tend to have longer use-lives. Through XRF analysis of a sample of temporally-diagnostic point styles from several sites within my study area, I hope to trace the movements and interactions of the Snake River Shoshone as they traversed the landscape during their seasonal round for at least the last 3300 years or so. Although debatable, the Shoshone are believed to have occupied southern Idaho for at least the last 2000 to 3000 years (Sydney Lamb’s revised dates in Thomas 1994) or perhaps even the last 4000 to 5000 years (Holmer 1994).

The ethnographic record indicates that the Snake River Shoshone were the year-round residents of the middle stretch of the Snake River between Shoshone Falls in the east and the confluence of the Bruneau River in the west. During root procurement activities on Camas Prairie in the summer and fishing on the Snake River and its tributaries in the spring, summer and fall, the Snake River Shoshone would have interacted with a number of other American Indian groups including the Nez Perce from the north, the Boise-Weiser Shoshone from the west, Fort Hall Shoshone from the east, and Northern Paiute and Shoshone groups from the south. During their seasonal round, the Snake River Shoshone moved about as far north as the mountains around Hailey and as far south as the South Hills and the Owyhee Uplands (Steward 1938:165-169). It is clear from the archaeological record that the prehistoric peoples of this area utilized a wide range of ecological settings and followed a number of alternative subsistence strategies - a considerable range of variability that archaeologists are still coming to terms with (cf. Plew 1990).

Although all time periods (including the Paleoarchaic and Early Archaic) are represented at lava’s edge sites within the study area, projectile point assemblages are dominated by Late Archaic forms, particularly Rosegate series and Desert series points, as well as some Middle Archaic Elko series points. If I were awarded the 2007 Annual Laboratory Grant, I would use the funds to have volcanic glass characterization analyses conducted on 28 projectile points from lava’s edge sites in my study area. My sample will be comprised of Elko, Rosegate, and Desert series points. I am not collecting any artifacts during my survey and so the sample to be submitted for XRF analysis will be drawn from those artifacts collected from the surfaces of these sites in the early 1990s. These artifacts are being curated at the Idaho Museum of Natural History at Idaho State University. Some projectile points may also be included from non-lava’s edge sites from the study area in order to bring the sample size up to 28. This will provide some basis of comparison between non-lava’s edge sites and lava’s edge sites within the study area.

Are more locally available sources represented at these sites or are more distant sources represented? The subsistence territory of the Snake River Shoshone was centrally-located in an area abundant in volcanic glass toolstone. What could not be obtained locally could be obtained readily through trade. In addition to Camas Prairie, a major trading and redistribution center also existed in the Boise-Weiser area. My study area is surrounded, but often at some distance, from a number of volcanic glass sources. Undoubtedly, a number of smaller, presently unidentified sources of volcanic glass exist within the central and western MBH (primarily in the form of small to medium sized cobbles in stream drainages). The lava flows within my study area could have also provided a source of obsidian and ignimbrite (as well as basalt), although survey has failed to identify any quarries or more casual procurement areas. To the north of my study area are the sources for Cannonball Mountain obsidian and Camas Prairie and Pine Mountain ignimbrites. To the northeast of the study area are the sources for Wedge Butte snowflake obsidian and ignimbrites from Picabo Hills and Jasper Flats. To the south are Brown’s Bench ignimbrites and to the southwest are the Owyhee obsidian sources. Based on the ethnographic record, all these toolstones could be procured directly during the seasonal round of the Snake River Shoshone. More distant sources are found outside of the Snake River Shoshone subsistence territory and their presence at the site would imply interaction or exchange with neighboring groups. For instance, Big Southern Butte obsidian may suggest contact with the Fort Hall Shoshone to the east, Timber Butte obsidian may imply contact with the Nez Perce, and Nevada sources may imply contact with Northern Paiute groups. How does the XRF data support the ethnographic model of mobility and interaction archaeologically? Can the ethnographic model of group movements be projected back into the prehistoric past? What may have prompted toolstone procurement strategies to change or remain the same from Elko times to Rosegate times and to Desert Side-notched times? In eastern Idaho, Elko points generally date from 3300 to 1200 years ago, Rosegate series points date from 1700 to 700 years ago, and Desert series points date from 750 to 100 years ago (Holmer 1995).

Holmer (1997) amassed a geochemical database of over 1200 artifacts from 24 counties in eastern Idaho. Plager (2001), building off of the database of Holmer, increased the size of the database to over 2600 artifacts. More over, Plager expanded the database to include sourced artifacts from all over southern Idaho and adjacent areas, expanding the area covered in Idaho to 32 counties. However, the geochemical data for Camas and Lincoln counties were under-represented in the database. Only data on six specimens from Camas County and four specimens from Lincoln County were represented, making up less than 1% of the database. My study is significant in that it will nearly triple the size of the database for these two counties.

American Indians ranged all over the southern Idaho landscape, utilizing a broad spectrum of resources and ecological settings. For small-scale hunter-gatherer groups with relatively simple and generalized technologies there were many ways by which to adapt to the environment and within broad limits all of these worked (cf. Hallpike 1988:86-122). The American Indians of southern Idaho followed a lifeway characterized by adjustable degrees of residential mobility and a high degree of technological and organizational flexibility. It is archaeology’s task to initially describe these patterns and ultimately explain the resulting variability as manifested in the archaeological record wherever and whenever it exists in both time and in space (cf. Bettinger 1993). My study is thus significant in that it addresses a human adaptive tactic not yet documented in the archaeological record: the use of lava flows as catchments for water in an otherwise semi-arid desert environment. These water sources would have facilitated short-term occupation of the eastern MBH on a seasonal basis. This study is also significant in it will shed light on the archaeology and prehistory of a previously unknown area - an area that has been overlooked as an area of low archaeological site density and thus of little concern in understanding the regional prehistory of south-central Idaho (cf. Cinadr 1976). It is clear, however, based on archaeological evidence and inferred from the ethnographic record that the eastern MBH had a significant role to play in the seasonal round of American Indians.

The obsidian sourcing aspect of my research will probably raise more questions than it answers. After all, according to Hughes (1998:110), "what we really get from sourcing is a measure of the physical displacement of materials, not direct evidence for trade, exchange, direct procurement, or mobility." Similarly, Holmer (1997:195) maintains that archaeologists’ ability to shed light on patterns exceeds their ability to develop defendable cultural interpretations for those patterns. However, only after identifying the patterns can archaeologists start to explore explanations for those patterns. This grant will provide me with the opportunity to explore these patterns of volcanic glass displacement within the eastern MBH and to compare and contrast them to patterns exhibited at the regional level (Holmer 1997; Plager 2001).

References Cited

Bettinger, Robert L. 1993. Doing Great Basin Archaeology Recently: Coping with Variability. Journal of Archaeological Research 1(1):43-66.

Cinadr, Thomas J. 1976. Mount Bennett Hills Planning Unit: Analysis of Archaeological Resources. Idaho State University Museum of Natural History Archaeological Reports Number 6. Pocatello.

Hallpike, Christopher R. 1988. The Principles of Social Evolution. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Holmer, Richard N. 1997. Volcanic Glass Utilization in Eastern Idaho. Tebiwa 26(2):186-204.

Holmer, Richard N. 1995. Guide to the Identification of Projectile Points from the Upper Snake River Basin, Eastern Idaho, Second Edition. Center for Environmental Anthropology Technical Report No. 1. Idaho State University, Pocatello.

Holmer, Richard N. 1994. In Search of the Ancestral Northern Shoshone. In Across the West: Human Population Movement and the Expansion of the Numa, edited by David B. Madsen and David Rhode, pp. 179-187. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.

Hughes, Richard E. 1998. On Reliability, Validity, and Scale in Obsidian Sourcing Research. In Unit Issues in Archaeology: Measuring Time, Space, and Material, edited by Ann F. Ramenofsky and Anastasia Steffen, pp. 103-114. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.

Plager, Sharon R. 2001. Patterns in the Distribution of Volcanic Glass across Southern Idaho. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, Department of Anthropology, Idaho State University, Pocatello.

Plew, Mark G. 1990. Modelling Alternative Subsistence Strategies for the Middle Snake River. North American Archaeologist 11(1):1-15.

Steward, Julian H. 1938. Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups. Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 120. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. Reprinted in 1970 by University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.

Thomas, David H. 1994. Chronology and the Numic Expansion. In Across the West: Human Population Movement and the Expansion of the Numa, edited by David B. Madsen and David Rhode, pp. 56-61. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.

Prehistoric land use of the area contained within the boundary of Mount Rainier National Park (MORA) dates to at least 3,400 BP with potential to extend to more than 8,000 BP (Burtchard 2003:iii). Sites like the one located adjacent to Tipsoo Lakes (45PI406) have the potential to augment our understanding of the nature of this land use due to its proximity to a prehistoric trail (Smith 2003) and multiple economic resources associated with its high altitude (Burtchard 2003). 45PI406 is located west of the largest lake, at a present day picnic area. The lakes lie directly on a known prehistoric route used by the Yakama and potentially other Native American groups to gain access to the Mt Rainier area for resource extraction as well as travel to the west to trade with coastal tribes (Smith 1964).

As a component of my masters thesis work at Central Washington University I have, under Dr. Patrick McCutcheon’s supervision, conducted an analysis of the existing lithic assemblage from 45PI406 using a three paradigmatic classifications. One classification focuses on an artifacts technological attributes (fragment type, platform type, thermal alteration, etc), the second records an artifacts functional characteristics (kind of wear, location and shape of wear, etc) and a third classification describes the physical properties of the stone comprising that artifact. This approach allows for multiple aspects of the technological, functional and structural characteristics of an assemblage to be made at the level of the artifacts themselves. This approach avoids the complications of modeling human land use according to site location in environmental zones, whose locations fluctuate with climatic changes.

Obsidian has been recovered from other sites in the southern Washington cascades; however, there is an unusually high frequency of obsidian in the extant lithic assemblage from 45PI406. Other larger sites, such as the Sunrise Ridge Borrow Pit site (45PI408) have substantially larger samples (n = 4,383) but less than one percent (43/4,383) of that assemblage is obsidian. Nearly 5 percent (38/734) of the lithic assemblage at 45PI406 is obsidian and further excavation will likely increase this sample size. Only five specimens have been sourced thus far with thirty three remaining. The five specimens that have been sourced represent three different Oregon obsidian sources: Newberry Crater, Obsidian Cliffs, and Little Bear Creek. A more complete understanding of the source variation in the obsidian recovered from 45PI406 will provide valuable data on the nature of prehistoric use in the area and its connectivity to other portions of the northwest.

References Cited:

Burtchard, G. C. 2003. Environment, Prehistory & Archaeology of Mount Rainier National Park, Washington. International Archaeological Research Institute, Inc., Honolulu, Hawaii.

Smith, A. H. 2006. Takhoma: Ethnography of Mount Rainier National Park. Washington State University Press, Pullman, Washington.

Zweifel, M. K and C. S. Reid. 1991. Prehistoric Use of the Central Cascade Mountains of Eastern Washington State: An Overview of Site Types and Potential Resource Utilization. Archaeology in Washington 3:3-16.

Introduction: For my thesis project, I am investigating habitation, subsistence strategies, and the movement of prehistoric groups on the Eastern Snake River Plain with a focus on sites in and around the Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve Holocene age lava flows.

Background: The primary goal of my thesis research is to synthesize current archaeological data from the Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve and provide park managers and researchers with the appropriate measures to manage and interpret cultural resources contained within the Preserve boundaries. My research objectives also include identifying areas with elevated archaeological sensitivity requiring special management and providing a predictive model that presents sufficient information to make knowledgeable decisions regarding future cultural resource policies.

The Preserve is located on the eastern Snake River Plain, a relatively flat volcanic feature bounded by the Basin and Range physiographic province to the south and the Idaho batholiths to the north. The plain drops gradually from an elevation of roughly 2000 meters at the border of the Yellowstone Plateau on the eastern side, to roughly 700 meters on the western edge. The surface of the eastern Snake River Plain is comprised of Pleistocene and Holocene basalt flows covered by aeolian deposits (Kuntz et al. 1992). More recent flows (including many of those on the Preserve) are devoid of sediments.

Methodology and Sampling Design: The Preserve contains 291 previously documented sites and 306 isolated finds. The majority of these resources were recorded during intensive areal surveys of large land tracts in association with range fire rehabilitation efforts conducted by the Bureau of Land Management. During the past two years, the University of Oregon Archaeological Field School conducted intensive pedestrian surveys in portions of the Preserve. A total of 1600 acres were examined during the 2004 field season and 28 new archaeological sites were recorded. In 2005, the UO Archaeological Field School returned to the Preserve for additional intensive pedestrian surveys. A total of 3200 acres were inventoried during the 2005 field season and 84 new sites were recorded. In addition to the pedestrian surveys, five archaeological sites were subjected to test excavations.

Geospatial analysis of prehistoric sites and isolates on the Preserve required manipulating the database provided by the Idaho State Historic Preservation Office. All previously documented archaeological sites were sorted into "types" based on the range of artifacts noted in surface assemblages. Dates of occupation were assigned to previously recorded archaeological sites within the study area if they contained diagnostic projectile points. This allowed for an examination of the distribution of sites through time.

A geochemical source analysis of diagnostic volcanic glass projectile points collected from the Preserve over the last 25 years is currently underway. The primary goal of this analysis is to examine how far volcanic glass projectile points from the Preserve have been transported from their original source and assess whether patterns in the data suggest direct procurement or exchange networks. The results of this analysis will also be considered with other facets of the archaeological record from the Preserve to determine if changes in mobility and land use has occurred through time.

Previous geochemical studies of southern Idaho volcanic glass artifacts (Holmer 1997, Plager 2001, Thompson 2004) have already attempted to decipher patterns in the transportation and/or trade of volcanic glass within the region and beyond. However, these studies included non-diagnostic artifacts and waste flakes (Holmer 1997, Plager 2001, Thompson 2004). For the current research objectives, diagnostic projectile points were considered much more useful in addressing temporal questions regarding the utilization of volcanic glass in the study area.

A total of 104 projectile points from the Preserve have been submitted for geochemical analysis thus far. The geochemical analysis was performed by the Northwest Research Obsidian Laboratory. Points were attributed to a source only if their trace element values fell within two standard deviations of the known upper and lower limits of a source's chemical fingerprint (Skinner 2005a, 2005b, 2006).

Preliminary Results: Results of the research indicate that the volcanic glass utilized in projectile point manufacture originated from thirteen (13) different sources across southern Idaho. All of the sources represented in the analyzed sample of projectile points from the Preserve are within 275 kilometers of the study area. Big Southern Butte, Wedge Butte and the American Falls source, located between 35 and 65 kilometers away, are nearest to the Preserve, while the Malad, Cannonball Mountain and Brown’s Bench sources are all within 150 kilometers. The Teton Pass, Bear Gulch, Timber Butte and Owyhee sources are all in excess of 200 kilometers from the Preserve.

Previous archaeological research on the eastern Snake River Plain has demonstrated that the same resource localities were utilized over millennia as part of a highly mobile subsistence strategy. If regional subsistence patterns have remained relatively stable for the past 8000 years, the consistently high frequency of Big Southern Butte, American Falls and Brown’s Bench volcanic glass represented in projectile points from the Preserve is anticipated.

The most notable pattern emerging from the source analysis is the occurrence of more distant volcanic glass sources in late Holocene projectile points, specifically Desert Side-notched points. With the exception of a single Stemmed Indented-base point sourced to Teton Pass, middle Holocene points from the Preserve are represented by volcanic glass sources less than 150 kilometers away. While these local sources (i.e., Big Southern Butte and Brown’s Bench) still dominate the late Holocene assemblage, the Bear Gulch, Timber Butte and Owyhee sources (all in excess of 200 kilometers from the study area) are represented only in late Holocene points. This trend has been previously observed in other geochemical analyses of southern Idaho volcanic glass artifacts (Reed 1985, Holmer 1997, Plager 2001).

Research Objectives: Based on the preliminary results of the geochemical analysis, a statistically significant increase appears in the mean distance in which volcanic glass was transported during the late Holocene. More distant sources represented in the sample of Desert Side-notched points suggest an increase in mobility or greater contact between groups occupying the Snake River Plain after 750 years B.P. Direct procurement of local volcanic glass was still the favorite strategy and an important component of the seasonal round. However, judging from the higher frequency of sites on the Preserve from this time period, increasing human populations may have served as the catalyst for increased interaction between groups.

While the geochemical analyses conducted thus far have greatly enhanced our understanding of aboriginal mobility and land use in the region encompassing the Preserve, additional analyses of late Holocene projectile points from the study area will increase the overall sample size and thus allow further evaluation of the archaeological data and its implications. Upon receiving the grant, I plan to submit additional projectile points from the Late Holocene for XRF analysis to better explore these patterns.

References Cited

Holmer, Richard N. 1997 Volcanic Glass Utilization in Eastern Idaho. Tebiwa 26:186-204.

Plager, Sharon 2001. Patterns in the Distribution of Volcanic Glass Across Southern Idaho. Unpublished Master's Thesis, Department of Anthropology, Idaho State University, Pocatello, Idaho.

Reed, W.G. 1985. An Approach to the Archaeological Identification of Shoshonean Subsistence Territories in Southern Idaho. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Department of Anthropology, Idaho State University, Pocatello.

Skinner, Craig E. 2005a. X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Artifact Obsidian from Several Sites in Minidoka and Blaine Counties, Idaho. Northwest Research Obsidian Studies Laboratory Report 2005-47.

Skinner, Craig E. 2005b. X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Artifact Obsidian from the Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve, Blain, Lincoln, Minidoka, and Power Counties, Idaho. Northwest Research Obsidian Studies Laboratory Report 2005-108.

Skinner, Craig E. 2006. X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Artifact Obsidian from the Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve, Blain, Lincoln, Minidoka, and Power Counties, Idaho. Northwest Research Obsidian Studies Laboratory Report 2006-28.

Project Description: Recent literature regarding hunter-gatherer mobility suggests that lithic sourcing data from X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis can be used to discern mobility patterns and establish territories of prehistoric/historic aboriginal peoples (Jones et al. 2003; Kelly 1992). There is agreement among many archaeologists that late Archaic/Protohistoric hunter-gatherer groups were highly mobile and were capable of moving great distances to obtain resources when needed. The archaeological record often suggests that the most significant changes in these strategies began due to changing climatic conditions during the early Holocene, resulting in a biotic reformation (Steward 1938; Jones et al. 2003). However, the nature of these changes is not completely understood in the intermountain northwest (Jones et al. 2003). Archaeological evidence further suggests that these climatic shifts were not the only likely conditioners of change in the prehistoric lifeway.

It is postulated by Kelly, that highly mobile groups move across a given landscape (1996) in relationship to resource availability and adapted to their environment exploiting resources as they became available. Environmental impacts to hunting/foraging grounds during the early historic phase would have likely altered these patterns and attributed in variations within the archaeological record. Although the focus on hunter-gatherer mobility has been embraced by modern forager studies for a number of years (Kelly 1932; Lee and Devore 1968; Lothrop 1928; Murdock 1967) it was not until Binford’s (1977, 1978, 1979, 1980), ethnoarchaeological research with the Nunamiut that a methodology emerged, in which to develop real archaeological expectations. Recent studies utilize such methods to discuss further the behaviors associated with mobility and trade (Plager 2001; Holmes 1996).

This project will examine the previous research of the region regarding prehistoric/historic influences on mobility patterns and preferment of obsidian trade in southwestern Idaho and southeastern Oregon. Furthermore, this study of obsidian site/source correlations through XRF analysis, will provide information for a detailed database that will be created reflecting site locations, site type, mean and actual distances to source, source descriptions, and regional landscape variations.

Justification and Significance of the Project: Until thirty years ago, lithic sourcing data were largely ignored. XRF analysis begins in earnest with Sappington’s 1970s work and subsequent publications (1981a, 1981b, 1982). The fact that obsidian and other volcanic glasses contain unique geochemical signatures has allowed archaeologists to map out source locations and has become widely utilized as a mechanism for determining relationships to obsidian sources and artifactual evidence. Through this operational construct, patterns and trends are developed and can provide insight into how these materials were obtained by early native people. The mechanisms for the transport of resources, e.g., delayed transport, and the means by which they were ultimately obtained, e.g., chance finds, can not be fully understood simply by these relationships of volcanic glass sources and site locations. However, the patterns being interpreted may prove valuable in discussing unknown variables such as fortuitous acquisitions, geologic and/or natural processes such as catastrophic hydrological events (i.e., the Bonneville flood) and alluvial redeposition. Furthermore, trade systems are known to have existed all across the Snake River plain and into the Owyhee uplands (Plager 2001; Holmes 1996). A reasonable beginning in the study of prehistoric/historic mobility and behavior considers both source location and technological organization rather than either exclusively (Kuhn 1991; Odell; 1996a). Stone tool material procurements may have been task specific but may likely vary depending on a given occurrence. Furthermore, hunting, butchering, and processing tasks often display varied levels of technological organization and development (Bradley 1987) that would have been modified greatly during the contact period. When attempting to address mobility and trade based on XRF data alone we are often tethered to site and source location and the potential associations or relationships between the two exclusively.

This linear model fails to account for latent variables regarding specific tasks, time, serendipity, cognitive behavior, and individual value and choice. Many of these are impossible to fully understand but by creating a sufficient database through which patterns can be adequately explored, it is possible to distinguish potential trade activities, resource acquisition choice, and mobility patterns. Additionally, it is possible to discuss any affect (i.e. increases/decreases in obsidian use or mobility patterns) that may have occurred with the introduction of historic materials and technology. This project would sufficiently satisfy the desired number of samples needed for the creation of this database and will serve as one of the only obsidian site/source databases for the region. This database would be accessible and advantageous as new research questions are developed by future researchers.

Project and Time Schedules: Research for this project will be expected to take roughly one full year. It is crucial that each obsidian specimen selected for analysis be determined to have established provenience and be typologically identifiable to be from a late Archaic/early historic time frame and be sufficiently amalgamated to regional ethnographic and historic accounts and contexts.

The project will begin in earnest during the latter part of January 2005 and will continue through the early part of 2006. Library research will occur during the first phase of the project and is expected to be completed by the fall of 2005. Field work will commence during the summer of 2005 and will include the use of geologic information systems (GIS) software to build digital maps of source locations and geographic contexts i.e. river systems, mountain ranges, lakes, and ethnographic/historic territories. Completed drafts of the thesis will be reviewed during the early part of 2006 and a completed thesis, including the GIS materials and database, will be presented for defense during the spring of that year.

Availability of Research to Scholars and the Public: The results of this project will be made available to scholars and the public through copies of my Master’s thesis, paper presented at the Northwest Anthropological conference in the spring of 2006, and potential publication of results. All information and materials analyzed will be accessible to professionals researchers through the Idaho State Historic Preservation Office located in Boise, the University of Idaho Alfred B. Bowers Anthropological Laboratory and the Boise State University Department of Anthropology archaeological laboratory.

Summary: Understanding the transition between the prehistoric and early historic periods in southwestern Idaho and southeastern Oregon will occur only though thoughtful and innovative research and a desire to explore the conditioners that may have affected the behavioral aspects of the human condition. The introduction of materials such as copper, tin, and steel, coupled with the investiture of new technological such as rifles and gunpowder, is expected to have impacted the lifeway and behavioral aspects of prehistoric inhabitants in the region (Liljeblad 1957:81). Commensurably, it is likely that levels of trade and the acquisition of raw obsidian materials would have decreased significantly during this period affecting mobility patterns, hunting/gathering strategies, trade routes, and overall behavior.

In order to explore the relationships and prehistorical/historical contexts of obsidian materials and acquisition within site and source corollaries, a significant data base must first be created as a foundation for comparing potential patterns and trends over time. This research will result in a Master’s thesis, conference paper to be presented at the Northwest Anthropological Conference in the spring of 2006, and possible article publications as well as an accessible and invaluable database for future researchers involved in archaeology, history, and ethnographic studies.

Jennifer Keeling
Master's Candidate
Department of Anthropology, Washington State University

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE CHALK BASIN, OWYHEE RIVER REGION, SOUTHEASTERN OREGON

Project Background: Chalk Basin is located in high-desert country on the middle section of the Owyhee River. Numerous sites have been recorded in close proximity to Chalk Basin, but very few have been the focus of intensive excavations by archaeologists. Some of the sites that have been investigated include, Birch Creek (Cole 2001; Andrefsky et al. 2003; Centola 2004; Wallace 2004), Dirty Shame Rockshelter (Hanes 1988), Skull Creek Dunes (Wegener 1998), Indian Grade Spring (Jenkins and Connolly 1990), Lost Dune (Lyons et al. 2001), and Antelope Creek Overhang (Plager et al. 2003). The authors of these reports have provided important information about trade networks, migration patterns, dwelling structures, period of occupation, dietary and nutritional information, and locations for raw material procurement.

Research Goals: My thesis project is an ideal candidate to add valuable information to the region because it can easily build upon information that has already been published. As such, my scope of research is focused upon writing a site report for Chalk Basin focusing on three main goals: 1) determine when the site was occupied; 2) propose potential migration patterns and/or trade networks of the former inhabitants; and 3) infer the types of activities that occurred at the site. Achieving these goals will be beneficial in placing Chalk Basin into a regional context of the Owyhee River locale. For example, knowing where the obsidian found at Chalk Basin was obtained can answer if past residents were visiting the same obsidian resources as groups from Birch Creek (Cole 2001; Wallace 2004) and Lost Dune (Lyons et al. 2001). Also, knowing the site function and time of occupation will provide information that can be compared to Hanes’ (1988) ‘Regional Patterns’ to determine if residents of Chalk Basin would fit into his proposed model.

Methods: The result of the 2004 field investigations has provided me with the data to address the aforementioned goals of my thesis project. The first goal is to determine when the site was occupied. Based on the projectile point typology (Elko Cornered and Rose Spring points), the site has a 6400-year general window of occupation that could be further reduced to a smaller and more precise range of dates. Some bone fragments recovered 40 cm below datum in Test Unit 1 may provide enough collagen to obtain an absolute date through AMS dating methods (Bennett et al. 1978; Fagan 1997). These bone samples will be submitted this summer for dating and the results will be included in my Master’s thesis.

The second and third goals of my thesis project, i.e. lithic sourcing and technological organization, structure the framework for the lithic analysis. One prominent feature of the site is the possible exploitation of a white chert that occurs naturally at the site and appears to have been used there for tool manufacture. My analysis focuses on the possibility of local procurement of this white chert but also addresses other raw materials utilized by past cultural groups, specifically the use of obsidian. Two of the projectile points and numerous debitage pieces recovered from the site are made from obsidian. The occurrence of obsidian at the site, coupled with the fact that there are no known local outcrops, sparks another important question to be addressed: where is the obsidian outcrop from which past cultural groups procured this resource? Answering this question can provide information about how the residents of Chalk Basin moved around the landscape.

With the technology of obsidian sourcing (Jones et. al 1996; Amick 1999), artifacts manufactured from obsidian can be matched to their original outcrop based on their distinct chemical signature. My major problem with this technology is expense, approximately $35 per sample. While the BLM has provided support for the fieldwork and some lab analysis, I am lacking funds to test for obsidian sources (XRF analysis) on approximately twenty-five samples. A Northwest Obsidian Studies Laboratory grant would provide support for this part of my thesis project, helping me to demonstrate possible trade networks and/or human migration within the Owyhee locale.

Finally, the lithic analysis is geared towards trying to decipher activities occurring at the site by using a technological approach. Following Andrefsky’s (1998) model of lithic debitage analysis, I am trying to determine what types of artifacts were being processed and/or used at the site through attribute analysis of flakes. For example: were they reducing the material into just cores and/or preforms? Or were they reducing materials from the site into finished tools? Another possible alternative could be that no manufacturing was occurring at the site and residents were bringing in finished tools and performing maintenance activities. As mentioned earlier, knowing the activities occurring at the site will determine if residents of Chalk Basin fit into Hanes’ model of Mid and Late Archaic occupations.

Summary: Answering these questions would provide a baseline study for subsequent researchers in this area to help understand other sites along the Owyhee River. Funding from the Northwest Obsidian Studies Laboratory would provide support for obsidian sourcing. Ideally, I would like to submit twenty-five samples for XRF analysis of obsidian artifacts. This amount would provide adequate data for me to integrate the results with other nearby sites that have relied on the Northwest Obsidian Studies Laboratory for chemical analysis, specifically those from Birch Creek (Cole 2001; Wallace 2004) and Lost Dune (Lyons et al. 2001).

Fieldwork at Chalk Basin, southeastern Oregon.

References Cited

Amick, D.S. 1999. Using Lithic Artifacts to Explain Past Behavior. In Models for the Millennium: Great Basin Anthropology Today. Edited by Charlotte Beck. The University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.

Andrefsky, W., Jr. 1998. Lithics: A Macroscopic Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Andrefsky, W, Jr., L.Centola, J. Cowan, and E. Wallace. 2003. An Introduction to the Birch Creek Site (35ML181): Six Seasons of WSU Archaeological Field Study 1998-2002. Center for Northwest Anthropology, Contributions in Cultural Resource Management, No. 69. Washington State University, Pullman.

Centola, L.A. 2004. Deconstructing Lithic Technology: A Study From the Birch Creek Site (35ML181), Southeastern Oregon. Unpublished Master’s thesis on file at Washington State University.

Cole, C. R. 2001. Raw Material Sources and the Prehistoric Chipped-Stone Assemblage of The Birch Creek Site (35ML181), Southeastern Oregon. Unpublished Master’s thesis on file at Washington State University.

Fagan, B. M. 1997. Archaeology: A Brief Introduction, Sixth edition. Longman, New York.

Hanes, R.C. 1988. Lithic Assemblage of Dirty Shame Rockshelter: Changing Traditions in the Northern Intermontane. University of Oregon Anthropological Papers No. 40, Eugene.

Huntley, J.L. 1986. A Survey Overview of Several Archaeological Sites on the Owyhee River between Home and Leslie Gulch. Unpublished report submitted to the Bureau of Land Management, Vale, Oregon.

Jenkins, D. L. and T.J. Connolly. 1990. Archaeology of Indian Grade Spring: A Special Function Site on Stinkingwater Mountain, Harney County Oregon. University of Oregon Anthropological Papers No. 42.

Jones, G.T., D.G. Bailey, and C. Beck. 1997. Source Provenance of Andesite Artefacts Using Non-Destructive XRF Analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 24:929-943.

Lyons, W.H., S.P. Thomas, and C.E. Skinner. 2001. Changing Obsidian Sources at the Lost Dune and McCoy Creek Sites, Blitzen Valley, Southeast Oregon. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 23(2):273-296.

Plager, S., M.G. Plew, and C. A. Willson. 2003. The Archaeology of Antelope Creek Overhang, Southeastern Oregon. Unpublished Report submitted to the Bureau of Land Management. Vale, Oregon.

Wallace, E. 2004. Obsidian Projectile Points and Human Mobility Around the Birch Creek Site (35ML181), Southeastern Oregon. Unpublished Master’s thesis on file at Washington State University.

Project/Site Background: I attended the University of Oregon field school in 2002. We exavated at the Paisley Fivemile Point Caves that were originally examined by Luther Cressman in 1938 and 1939. Efforts to adequately date the deep, well-stratified deposits at these caves are still on-going. Dr. Dennis Jenkins has dated some of the deepest deposits at the caves using both radiocarbon and obsidian hydration methods. These efforts have produced extremely exciting dates of 10,160 +/- 40, 10,550 +/- 40, and 12,300 +/- 60 years B.P. from a hearth, tiny threads, a horse bone, and a camel bone. Obsidian source characterization and hydration studies have been initiated by Dr. Jenkins but the current number of specimens known from the caves is insufficient to adequately determine the proper hydration rates. Analysis of the 68 obsidian hydration measurements now available for the site suggests that the rate of hydration for sepcimens recovered from the dry interior deposits is substantially slower than for those recovered from moister soils in the more exposed deposits at the mouths of the caves. Further sampling is necessary to characterize the upper, later deposits and further examine the oldest deposits at the caves. I propose to assist this effort with the support provided by this research grant.

Project/Site Background: The Birch Creek site (35ML181) is located along the Owyhee River in southeastern Oregon approximately 60 kilometers northwest of Jordan Valley, Oregon. Four seasons of excavation and a ground penetrating radar survey have been conducted at the site. A small team of Washington State University faculty and graduate students, myself included, will be returning to the site this summer for further excavation.

The first two field seasons focused on the excavation of a large housepit block. The most recent field seasons primarily concentrated on a hand-excavated trench approximately 40 meters north of the housepit block. Radiocarbon dates from both areas of the site suggest that multiple features were occupied contemporaneously (Andrefsky and Nauman 2003).

Research Objectives: Temporally diagnostic obsidian projectile points are the focus of my thesis research. There are two primary questions I will address with my thesis research:

1. Do obsidian source locations change through time, or are site occupants utilizing the same resources through time? · Are certain obsidian source locations selected for particular projectile point types? For example, are Elko style projectile points made of material from different obsidian source locations than Humboldt, Northern Side-Notched, and Gatecliff projectile points?

2. Previous XRF analysis (Cole 2001; Skinner 2000; Skinner 2002) has focused on artifacts from the housepit block and no material has yet been sourced from the most recently excavated trench. Sourcing artifacts from the hand-excavated trench will allow for comparisons to be made between multiple features at the site.

Lab Services Used for Research: Approximately 100 obsidian projectile points have been recovered from the Birch Creek site and 36 of these have previously been sourced. The support from this grant would cover the cost of XRF analysis for 30 of the approximately 60 projectile points that remain to be sourced. My thesis work will not only expand on the research that has been conducted at the Birch Creek site but also on the limited archaeological research that has been conducted in southeastern Oregon.

References Cited

Andrefsky, Jr., William, and Alissa Nauman. 2003. A Preliminary Report on the Birch Creek Site (35ML181): Five Seasons of WSU Archaeological Field School Study 1998-2002. Contributions to Cultural Resource Management No. 68. Center for Northwest Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman.

Cole, Clint Robert. 2001. Raw Material Sources and the Prehistoric Chipped-stone Assemblage of the Birch Creek Site (35ML181), Southeastern Oregon. Unpublished MA thesis, Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman.

Skinner, Craig E. 2000. X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Artifact Obsidian from the Birch Creek Site (35ML181), Malheur County, Oregon. Northwest Obsidian Studies Laboratory Report 2000-53. Northwest Obsidian Studies Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon.

Skinner, Craig E. 2002. X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Artifact Obsidian from the Birch Creek Site (35ML181), Malheur County, Oregon. Northwest Obsidian Studies Laboratory Report 2002-16. Northwest Obsidian Studies Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon.

The Birch Creek Site: The Birch Creek site (35ML181) occupies the shoreline and terrace of a bend in the Owyhee River, approximately 60 kilometers northwest of Jordan Valley, Oregon. Excavations were conducted during the 1998 and 1999 summer field seasons and exposed approximately half of two housepits and two more contacts below them. Excavations stopped before reaching culturally sterile layers. Two radiocarbon dates from opposite ends of the second housepit date to Cal BP 2735 - 2330 and Cal BP 2725 2335. I am waiting for analysis results of radiocarbon dates from contacts above and below the dated house floor.

The chipped stone assemblage from the Birch Creek site totals 63,787 CCS and obsidian (including vitrophyre) artifacts from three discrete contacts, four apparent housepit fills, and ten interspersed deposits of the excavation. Of these, 66 are obsidian tools and 6,907 are pieces of obsidian debitage. Obsidian generally comprises 10% to 15% of the lithic collection.

Thesis Research: This thesis addresses variation in raw material availability and how it is expressed through on-site tool use and manufacture. While the influence of locally available CCS and basalt materials will be considered, this research focuses on obsidian use and acquisition. It compares and contrasts diachronic changes in preference for obsidian source localities by the site occupants. In turn, I explore the implications this has for group mobility, site function, and intergroup dynamics. My research is guided by the following questions, each of which can address change through time:

• How is raw material quality and availability expressed in artifact form and frequency distributions at the Birch Creek site?
• Is there a preference for particular raw materials for particular artifact types?
• Is there a connection between raw material availability and degree of artifact reduction?
• From what source locations are occupants of Birch Creek getting their obsidian?
• Is a source's contribution related to its distance from the site?
• Is obsidian procured directly by site occupants, or does the evidence suggest the influence of intermediaries?

References Cited

Hanes, Richard C. 1988. Lithic Assemblages of Dirty Shame Rockshelter: Changing Traditions in the Northern Intermontane. University of Oregon Anthropological Papers no. 40. University of Oregon, Eugene.

Sappington, Robert Lee. 1981. The Archaeology of the Lydle Gulch Site (10-AA-72): Prehistoric Occupation in the Boise River Canyon, Southwestern Idaho. University of Idaho Anthropological Research Manuscript Series no. 66. University of Idaho, Moscow.

Michael Taggart
Master's Candidate
Interdisciplinary Studies, Oregon State University

PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AND LAND USE PATTERNS IN THE DESCHUTES NATIONAL FOREST: GIS APPLICATIONS IN SPATIAL ANALYSIS

Introduction: This research seeks to shed light on settlement and land use patterns of prehistoric huntergatherers of the Upper Deschutes River Basin of the Deschutes National Forest. A central goal is to examine how changes in the physical and social environments have affected prehistoric peoples' mobility, resource procurement and land use. Evidence ranging from faunal and floral distributions, ethnography, spatial and temporal distribution of archaeological sites, and archaeological remains, will be brought to bear on questions relating to aboriginal use of Central Oregon. The study will be primarily concerned with the southwest portion of the Forest, yet the findings will be interpreted within the larger context of Northern Great Basin, Plateau and Cascade physiographic and culture areas.

A recently developed Geographic Information System (Central Oregon Heritage Group) will form the foundation for spatial analysis of the study area. GIS has been shown to be a valuable tool for the analysis of relationships that exist between environmental phenomena and cultural adaptations. Along with it's research potential, the continued development of the GIS will contribute to conservation of archaeological resources on the Deschutes National Forest by predicting the nature and scale of potential adverse impacts. This research has been made possible through a co-operative agreement with the Deschutes National Forest, Bend/Fort Rock Ranger District.

Statement of Problem: A central goal of this research is to analyze the spatial and temporal distribution of archaeological sites. One apparent obstacle to thorough analysis of known archaeological materials from the Upper Deschutes drainage is their lack of good temporal markers. Many sites in the region lack diagnostic artifacts or any clear association with dateable materials. This problem could be partially addressed through the development of an obsidian hydration and sourcing program. Skinner (1995) has observed that almost all lithic assemblages composed of McKay Butte and Unknown X source obsidian (in the Upper Deschutes region) predate the eruption of Mt. Mazama. These sources were deeply buried under Mazama pumice and were used "very little in post Mazama times (cf. Deschutes County Preservation and Planning Department 1996:37)." Lithic material of such antiquity is known to be have been redeposited as surface scatters through various cultural and natural mechanisms (timber harvests, bioturbation, erosion, etc.).

Data Analysis: Data Analysis will be informed, primarily, by some of the pertinent research questions posed by the Deschutes County Prehistoric Context Statement (1996:38-39) related to land use patterns. Specific questions to be addressed include:

1. Following the eruption of Mt. Mazama, were the subsistence economies of the Upper Deschutes region more focused on terrestrial game resources or wetland resources? Obsidian sourcing will be used to identify post-Mazama obsidian sources. Faunal remains will be considered to help reconstruct diet. GIS will be used to study the spatial relationship of sites to important economic zones such as hunting grounds, gathering grounds and bodies of water, among other variables.

2. Did occupational intensity of the Upper Deschutes River region decline significantly following the eruption of Mt. Mazama? To what degree was biotic productivity affected, and how long did it take the local environment to rebound? GIS will allow for the analysis of any relationships that may exist between ash thickness and site occupation. Obsidian hydration will provide a data set from which the frequency of tool production over time and space can be analyzed. Faunal and botanical remains from archaeological sites will be used to infer the state of the prehistoric biotic communities.

3. Is distance from the source the primary factor influencing the distribution of raw material types across the Upper Deschutes, or are other mechanisms at work? With a sufficient sample, hydration and sourcing data will allow for GIS analysis of raw material use over time and space.

References Cited

Deschutes County Preservation & Planning Department. 1996. Deschutes County Prehistoric Context Statement. HPF 9516.

Skinner, Craig E. 1995. Obsidian Characterization Studies. In Archaeological Investigations, PGT-PG&E Pipeline Expansion Project, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, and California, Volume V: Technical Studies, by Robert U. Bryson, Craig E. Skinner, and Richard M. Pettigrew, pp. 4.1-4.54. Report prepared for Pacific Gas Transmission Company, Portland, Oregon, by INFOTEC Research, Inc., Fresno, California, and Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Davis, California.

Tony Largaespada
Master's Candidate
Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon

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FORT ROCK BASIN PROJECTILE POINT CHRONOLOGY, TYPOLOGY AND MATERIAL PROCUREMENT PATTERNS

Background: From the 1930's through the 1970's, many researchers contributed to the establishment of a Great Basin projectile point typology (Cressman, Williams and Krieger 1940; Jennings 1957; Baumhoff 1961; Lanning 1963; Clewlow 1967; O'Connell 1967; Hester 1973; Heizer and Hester 1978). While this typology is commonly used today, there are problems such as classification consistency, temporal placement of types, and the use of these types as chronological markers. Much of the debate concerning projectile point classification, however, was solved by David Thomas (1981), and the temporal placement debate has been quenched, as researchers acknowledge that types date to different times in different regions (Beck 1998). Of the three problems mentioned, only the use of points as chronological markers is still heavily debated (Flenniken and Wilke 1989), although many Great Basin archaeologists use them as such. It is these three topics, as well as material procurement patterns, limited to the projectile points of the Fort Rock region of the Northern Great Basin, that I am addressing with my research.

Research Objectives: For my master's research, I intend to analyze projectile points from the Fort Rock Basin to establish an in-depth chronology and morphological typology. To facilitate this research, several collections from sites in this region will be utilized including University of Oregon excavation and survey collections, the Rube Long Collection, housed at the Museum of Natural History at the University of Oregon, and the Bergen Collection, housed at the Burke Museum at the University of Washington. The bulk of projectile points, however, are specimens collected by the Fort Rock Basin Prehistory Project (UO field school).

During the last eleven years, the Fort Rock Basin Prehistory Project (now called the Northern Great Basin Prehistory Project) has recovered over 1,000 projectile points from more than a dozen sites and surveys in the Fort Rock Basin. In addition to this extensive collection, laboratory data from these sites include approximately 150 radiocarbon dates, and more than 1,000 obsidian sourcing and obsidian hydration analyses. This extensive body of data will not only facilitate an accurate chronology and typology of Fort Rock Basin projectile points, but will also aid in establishing raw material procurement patterns used in the creation of these projectile points. While this body of evidence is extensive, there are still several holes in the record which additional obsidian studies could fill.

The Northern Great Basin Prehistory Project has, as stated above, collected a large body of laboratory data on Fort Rock Basin projectile points. However, most of the obsidian studies have been done only since the mid 1990's. This leaves many sites, excavated early in the project's history, with little or no obsidian studies. In addition to this gap, there is also a lack of early Holocene projectile points recovered from dated contexts in Fort Rock Basin sites. In order to address these problems, I propose to conduct obsidian sourcing and hydration analyses on projectile points from sites (e.g. Big M) investigated early in the project's history, as well as those recovered this summer from the Connley Caves.

The Northern Great Basin Prehistory Project will be conducting excavations at the Connley Caves this summer. Recovery of early Holocene projectile points from those sites will address the problem of a general lack of early Holocene points from well dated contexts. After careful review of notes from previous excavations at the caves, we have established several "high probability" areas where we expect to find early Holocene materials. After excavation, the projectile points will be added to my research data, and obsidian studies will be needed to fully understand the chronology and material procurement patterns of these early Holocene projectile points. Hydration and source analyses will provide valuable insight into early Holocene chronology and material procurement, and enable me to produce the most accurate and extensive typology, chronology and material procurement study conducted to date, on projectile points in the Northern Great Basin.

References Cited

Baumhoff, M. A. (1957). An Introduction to Yana Archaeology. Berkeley: University of California Archaeological Survey Reports 40.

Baumhoff, M. A. and Byrne, J. S. (1959). Desert Side Notched Points as a Time Marker in California. University of California Archaeological Survey Reports 48:32-65.

Beck, C. (1999). Dating the Archaeological Record and Modeling Chronology. In Models for the Millennium: Great Basin Anthropology Today. Beck, C. ed. pp. 171-181.

Clewlow, C. W., Jr. (1967). Time and Space Relations of some Great Basin Projectile Point Types. University of California Archaeological Survey Reports 70:141-150.

Chessman, L. S., Williams, H. and Krieger, A. D. (1940). Early Man in Oregon: Archaeological Studies in the Northern Great Basin. University of Oregon Monographs. Studies in Anthropology 3.

Flenniken, J. J. and Wilke, P. J. (1989). Typology, Technology, and Chronology of Great Basin Dart Points. American Anthropologist 91:149-158.

Heizer, R. F. and Baumhoff, M. A. (1961). The Archaeology of Two Sites at Eastgate, Churchill County, Nevada: Wagon Jack Shelter. Berkeley: University of California Anthropology Records 20(4): 119-149.

Heizer, R. F. and Hester, T. R. (1978). Great Basin. In Chronologies in New World Archaeology. Taylor, R.E. and Clement, M. W. eds. pp 147-199. New York: Academic Press.

Hester, T. R. (1973). Chronological Ordering of Great Basin Prehistory. Berkeley: University of California Archaeological Research Facility Contributions 17.

Jennings, J. D. (1957). Danger Cave. University of Utah Anthropological Papers 27.

Lanning, E. P. (1963). Archaeology of the Rose Spring Site INY-372. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 49(3):237-336.

O'Connell, J. F. (1967). Elko Eared/Elko Corner Notched Projectile Points as Time Markers in the Great Basin. Berkeley: University of California Archaeological Survey Reports 70:129-140.

Thomas, D. H. (1981). How to Classify the Projectile Points from Monitor Valley, Nevada. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 3(l):7-43.

Scope and Objectives of Dissertation Research: Anthropologists widely debate the nature of processes involved in the development and perpetuation of social complexity. In discussing this issue, many scholars argue that dynamics of alliance and competition, within and between corporate groups, are often causally involved in the development of complexity (e.g. Friedman 1975; Marcus and Flannery 1996; Webster 1990). This dissertation research addresses recent debate regarding corporate groups and their link to social complexity through a case study of Native corporate households of the Northwest Coast (NWC) of North America. Here, social complexity refers to the degree of differentiation and/or inequality within a social unit. Corporate groups are internally cohesive multi-family units (e.g. clans) which often own property, feature internal hierarchy, and persist for generations.

The NWC multi-family household is widely recognized as a corporate group, and many researchers assert that corporate household dynamics are integrally related to complexity in NWC societies, typically viewed as relatively complex "ranked" or "stratified" societies (Ames 1995; Coupland 1996; Feinman 1995; Hayden 1995; Kelly 1995). However, current discussions of NWC households and societies are limited by extensive reliance on ethnographic and ethnohistoric documentary sources; these sources are severely biased in that they reflect only the post-contact period, and they focus on the northern and central NWC while under-representing the southern NWC.

In this dissertation, I address these limits to our understanding of NWC households and their link to social complexity through the analysis of archaeological data from the Lower Columbia River Basin, located on the southern NWC (in Oregon and Washington). The research objectives are two-fold. The first objective is to model relationships between social complexity and corporate households in the Lower Columbia, from the late pre-contact through early post-contact periods (ca. AD 1400 - AD 1830). The analysis focuses on three widely debated aspects of the corporate household as it relates to complexity: (1) the organization of household labor, (2) resource distribution within and between households, and (3) household participation in non-local exchange systems. The second objective is to use the Lower Columbia results to forward explanations of how and why corporate households and social complexity varied within the greater Northwest Coast, by comparing the Lower Columbia analysis with other Northwest Coast research. These aims are being accomplished through analyses of: (1) ethnohistoric documentation of Lower Columbia peoples; and (2) archaeological data from the following three excavated Lower Columbia plankhouse village sites, each dating from ca. AD 1400 - AD 1830:

• Cathlapotle (45-CL-1)
• Meier (35-CO-5)
• Clahclehlah (45-SA-11)

Lab Services Used for Research: Laboratory services will be used for XRF analysis in order to strengthen my research on Lower Columbia involvement in non-local exchange networks. Obsidian is not naturally available in the immediate vicinities of the three archaeological study sites for this project, indicating site residents acquired obsidian through exchange and/or travel. Because obsidian is the only apparently preserved Native import at these sites, it is a key archaeological indicator of non-local Native exchange networks. Consequently, obsidian source identification is critical to my analysis of involvement in non-local exchange networks, how this varied within and between households and sites, and how this changed over time from the late pre-contact through early post-contact periods.

Most sourcing for this project has been completed; I have obtained and used previously awarded grant funds for the XRF analysis of over 300 obsidian artifacts. Preliminary analysis of the extant XRF data reveals some interesting results. For example, each study site contains obsidian from sources in Western Oregon, Eastern Oregon, the Oregon Cascades, and Northern California. However, the proportion of obsidian from each region differs at each site, probably reflecting differential involvement in non-local exchange networks and differences in site location. In addition, the spatial distribution of sourced artifacts from the Meier Site strongly suggests that residents in the south end of the house had greater access (than those in the north end) to obsidian from more distant (and more valued?) sources. This pattern may reflect intra-household status differences and resultant differential participation in non-local exchange networks.

Another finding, the relatively high frequency of Western Oregon obsidian at the Clahclehlah site (located in the Columbia River Gorge), indicates obsidian was taken upriver from the Portland Basin into the Gorge. Indeed, the high frequency of western Oregon (especially Inman Creek) obsidian at all three study sites has implications for source proximity to the Portland Basin, an issue that is currently ambiguous. This high frequency may indicate that secondary deposits of obsidian nodules were naturally available, in some quantity, within or close to the Portland Basin, perhaps near the mouth of the Willamette River and in the Columbia River itself. Clearly, XRF analysis for this project has elucidated Lower Columbia peoples' role in the exchange and use of Oregon obsidian.

Previously awarded grant funds have allowed me to source 15% of the obsidian artifacts from two sites (Cathlapotle and Meier), but only 5% from the third site - Clahclehlah. A larger XRF sample from this site, proportionate to that from the other sites, would significantly expand my exploration of Clahclehlah intra-household and inter-household differences in exchange networks, and inter-site differences in these networks. In addition, a larger XRF sample would increase the ability of this project to enhance our understanding of Native Lower Columbia exchange and domestic use of Oregon obsidian.

References Cited

Ames, K. 1995. Chiefly Power and Household Production on the Northwest Coast. In Foundations of Inequality, ed. By T. Price and G. Feinman. Plenum Press, New York.

Coupland, G. 1996. This Old House: Cultural Complexity and Household Stability on the Northern Northwest Coast of North America. In Emergent Complexity: The Evolution of Intermediate Societies, ed. By J. Arnold. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.

Feinman, G. 1995. The Emergence of Inequality: A Focus on Strategies and Processes. In Foundations of Inequality, ed. By T. Price and G. Feinman. Plenum Press, New York.

Friedman, J. 1977. Notes toward an Epigenetic Model of "Civilization." In The Evolution of Social Systems, ed. By M. Rowlands and J. Friedman. Academic Press, London.

Hayden B. 1995. Pathways to Power: Principles for Creating Socioeconomic Inequality. In Foundations of Inequality, ed. By T. Price and G. Feinman. Plenum Press, New York.

Kelly, R. 1995. Egalitarian and Nonegalitarian Hunter-Gatherers. In The Foraging Spectrum, by R. Kelly. Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

Marcus, J. and K. Flannery. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. Thames and Hudson, London.

Webster, G. 1990. Labor Control and Emergent Stratification in Prehistoric Europe. Current Anthropology 31(4):337-366.

Margaret Helzer
Ph.D. Candidate
Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon

PALEOETHNOBOTANY AND HOUSEHOLD ARCHAEOLOGY AT THE BERGEN SITE: A MIDDLE HOLOCENE OCCUPATION IN THE FORT ROCK BASIN, OREGON

Project/Site Background: The Bergen site is located in the Fort Rock Basin in south-central Oregon in the extreme northwestern portion of the Great Basin. The site is situated on a lunette dune adjacent to Beasley Lake. Beasley Lake is currently composed of six playas (Beasley Lake, Schaub Lake, and four unnamed playas). The Bergen Lunette lies along the northeast shoreline of these playas. Geomorphological studies by Michael Droz at the University of Oregon indicate that formation of the Bergen Lunette Dune was generated by the accumulation of silts off a much larger, ancient playa during late Pleistocene / early Holocene times. The Bergen Lunette Dune, oriented to the northwest, measures approximately 1600 meters long and 200 meters wide. A dense lithic scatter of obsidian covers much of the dune. Investigations conducted by the 1998 University of Oregon Archaeological Field School verified the continuous distribution of cultural material over 1200 meters of the dune (over 240,000 sq. meters). Thirty-one 50 cm x 50 cm test probes and 15 one meter by one meter excavation units (including a block excavation consisting of 9 one by one units), were conducted during the 1998 field season. A radiocarbon date of 4,330+- 90 radio carbon years before present was obtained from a shallow depression of what appears to be a house floor. Excavations will resume during the 1999 summer field season. The block excavation will be extended to expose the remainder of the house floor and further testing will be continued at the site.

The Bergen Site, Fort Rock Basin, Oregon

Research Objectives: Specific goals of my research at the Bergen site center on investigating the nature of human occupation at the site as well as gaining a better understanding of the local environment at the time of occupation. Although a major focus of my dissertation will rely on archaeobotanical analyses of soil samples, I also plan to incorporate obsidian studies into this project. Obsidian sourcing and hydration data from the Bergen site would help provide insights into the patterns of mobility and interaction among prehistoric groups in the region. The size and location of the Bergen site suggests its importance in the valley prehistorically; obsidian characterization studies will help to shed light on the nature of the occupation as well as its association within the local and regional geographical area. In addition, data of this nature will extend the growing research base of obsidian studies in the Fort Rock Basin currently under investigation by researchers such as Dr. Dennis Jenkins with the University of Archaeological Field School and Bill Cannon of the Bureau of Land Management.